Public opinion, the media and pressure groups

Part A: Public opinion

1. Meaning and nature

Public opinion is the view held by a considerable part of the community on a matter of public concern, formed through discussion and intended for the public good. Two words matter: public, in that it concerns public affairs and is shared widely; and opinion, in that it is a considered judgment, not a passing mood.

• Lowell (Public Opinion and Popular Government, 1913): to be public, an opinion need not be unanimous, nor is a mere majority enough; it must be one which the minority, while not sharing it, feel bound by conviction, not by fear, to accept.
• Lord Bryce: the aggregate of the views men hold regarding matters that affect or interest the community.
• Walter Lippmann (Public Opinion, 1922) showed how opinion is shaped by “the pictures in our heads”, stereotypes formed through the media, and spoke of the “manufacture of consent”.

Its nature (principles): it concerns public questions; it aims at the general welfare, not a private interest; it rests on reason and discussion; it is the opinion of a large part of the people, not necessarily the majority; it is dynamic and changes with events; and it is compatible with tolerance of dissent.

2. Importance and limitations

Democracy is government by public opinion. It guides the legislature and the executive; it checks abuse of power; it protects rights, since a vigilant public is the last defence of liberty; it decides elections; and it is the force behind conventions. Bryce called it the real ruler of a democracy.

Its limitations: it may be manipulated by propaganda, parties and media owners; it may be ill-informed or emotional; illiteracy and poverty weaken it; communal, caste and regional loyalties distort it; and the majority may be intolerant of minorities. Conditions for a sound public opinion are education, a free and honest press, freedom of speech and association, economic security, tolerance and the absence of sharp social divisions.

3. Agencies of public opinion

1. The press: newspapers and periodicals.
2. Radio and television.
3. Cinema.
4. The internet and social media.
5. Political parties, through campaigns, meetings and literature.
6. Legislatures, whose debates are reported and broadcast.
7. Educational institutions.
8. Public meetings, platforms and literature.
9. Religious and social organisations, and pressure groups.
10. Elections, which both express and form opinion.

4. The media: visual, auditory and audio-visual

In India, All India Radio and Doordarshan operate under Prasar Bharati (a statutory corporation since 1997), and private television and the internet now dominate. The Press Council of India, under the Press Council Act 1978, oversees press ethics. Social media is regulated by the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021.

Part B: Pressure groups

5. Meaning and importance

A pressure group is an organised group of people sharing a common interest, which tries to influence public policy in its favour without itself seeking to capture political power. The difference from a party is that the party wants to govern, the pressure group only to influence those who govern; the party has a general programme, the group a specific interest; the party contests elections, the group does not.

S.E. Finer called the world of organised groups in Britain the “anonymous empire” (Anonymous Empire, 1958). V.O. Key and others treated them as the main channel through which interests reach government. They are important because they represent interests that territorial constituencies cannot, give specialised information to government, and keep the government in touch with organised opinion between elections. Some writers call them a “functional representation” that supplements the territorial kind.

6. Kinds (Almond and Powell)

1. Associational groups: formally organised to represent an interest. Business (FICCI, CII, ASSOCHAM in India; the National Association of Manufacturers in the USA), labour (AITUC, INTUC, BMS; the Trades Union Congress in Britain), farmers (Bharatiya Kisan Union), professional (the Bar Council, the Indian Medical Association), students and teachers.
2. Institutional groups: groups within government or formal bodies, such as the armed forces, the bureaucracy and civil service associations.
3. Non-associational groups: based on kinship, caste, religion, language or region, without formal organisation; important in India.
4. Anomic groups: spontaneous, often violent outbursts: riots, demonstrations and agitations.

Others distinguish interest groups, which defend the interests of their members, from promotional or cause groups, which advance a cause: environmental groups such as the Narmada Bachao Andolan, the Chipko movement, and rights groups.

7. Determinants and nature

The power of a pressure group depends on its size and the wealth of its members; organisation and leadership; the importance of its interest to the economy (farmers in India, business everywhere); its access to ministers, legislators and officials; the support of the media; and the political system itself. In the USA, with its weak party discipline and powerful committees, groups lobby individual legislators; in parliamentary systems with strong parties, they target ministers and civil servants.

8. Techniques and methods

1. Lobbying: direct approaches to legislators and officials. The word comes from the lobbies of legislatures. The USA regulates it by the Lobbying Disclosure Act 1995.
2. Propaganda and publicity: advertisements, media campaigns, pamphlets.
3. Electioneering: supporting friendly candidates with money and votes, without contesting directly. In the USA political action committees channel funds.
4. Representations and memoranda to ministers and committees; giving evidence before legislative committees.
5. Litigation: in India, public interest litigation has become a technique of cause groups.
6. Direct action: strikes, bandhs, dharnas, demonstrations, and boycotts.
7. Infiltration: placing sympathisers in parties and the administration.
8. Unfair means: bribery and corruption, and threats.

9. Critical appreciation

For: they supplement territorial representation; they give government expert information; they let citizens take part between elections; they check the government; they protect minorities and the weak when organised. Against: the well-funded groups (business) dominate and the unorganised (the poor, consumers) are unheard; they pursue narrow interests against the public good; secret lobbying corrupts officials; direct action disturbs public order. In India groups are often tied to parties (each major party has its own trade union), and caste and community groups are strong.

How this is examined

For public opinion: the definition (Lowell, Bryce), nature, importance, the agencies, and the media table, closing with the conditions for a sound public opinion. For pressure groups: the definition, the difference from parties, the four kinds, techniques and a critical appreciation. For “pressure groups in India” give the kinds with Indian examples and the special features: party links, caste groups, and agitational methods.